| Appendix
THE
PARA PRO
A PARAGLIDING SAFETY AND TRAINING
ANALYSIS
by Stein Arne Fossum*
__________________________________________________________________
The history of paragliding has been written
in a few years, where new barriers have been broken virtually
every day. (Today it may suffer from a hard case of the "Icarus
Syndrome".) It has developed into a full-blooded aviation
activity, which means that it is no longer simple and easy to
learn. It has become complex and potentially more dangerous
for the "self-learners", while the opposite may be
true for the ones that receive proper training.
In the race for more efficient gliders and new
developments (high aspect-ratio wings, power, thermal and cross
country flying), one seems to forget too often that human nature
needs time to learn to perform new tasks in a safe manner. The
training methods are very often on the "ground skimming
level", while reality calls for cross country and thermal
flying.
If one looks at the history of paragliding with
respect to the levels of flying that have been reached (limited
to foot launched, no power paragliding), we see 5 distinct stages,
similar to those involved in flight in hang gliders. However,
in paragliding, the lowest two levels are combined, due to the
greater ease of takeoff and landing and lower flight speeds
in paragliders.
Accidents are most likely to happen when the
pilot takes the step up to a higher stage.
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The
5 stages of paragliding:
5. CROSS COUNTRY
4. ADVANCED SOARING
(Soaring in turbulent conditions.)
3. BASIC SOARING
(Soaring in non turbulent conditions)
2. ALTITUDE GLIDING
(Altitude and space to manoeuvre, no soaring)
1. GROUND SKIMMING
(Don't fly higher than you would care to fall!)
(this stage is combined with stage 2)
Each stage is followed by a more complex stage
(a building block system) requiring new knowledge and skills.
It is a natural "ladder" where a student should climb
to progress safely in his paragliding career.
We have additional stages like Aerobatics, Experimental
and Power, all of which I personally consider unsafe for the
general pilots at the present time. They should therefore only
be performed by specialists using a strict professional program
until safe methods are found to make them available to everyone.
In addition to the stage system above, there
are also other stages or steps a pilot may take, such as changing
to another harness system, or learning to fly a new site or
a new glider.
Each time new stages are pioneered, or are being
reached by the "self learning" pilots, there are an
increase in accidents. Some of those accidents are unavoidable
because of the pioneering nature of it (Lillienthal was the
first one), while others could have been avoided simply by proper
training.
If one analyses why most accidents caused by
"pilot error" happen, one finds that they happen either
because the pilot tries to perform a task or meet a condition
he/she is not able to master, or he/she simply does something
that should not be done.
Today we have all the material necessary to
avoid most such accidents, either by the knowledge the paragliding
community has collected itself or by the available knowledge
through other aviation activities. Either we know how a task
should be performed correctly or we know that there are clear
limitations that we cannot safely exceed. (One sample of the
latter is cloud flying. Any sane motor or glider pilot knows
that this is dangerous, and it is hence unnecessary for paraglider
pilots to rediscover this fact by killing themselves).
Today, paragliding, along with other aviation
activities, has most of the information needed to progress safely
through the flying stages. All that is needed is to put all
together in a training system.
Let us have a closer look at the model of the
stages:
The 5 stages of paragliding:
Accidents are most likely to happen when the
pilot takes the step up to a higher stage. A training system
should be designed to smooth out these steps with a natural
progression to higher pilot ability. We fill in these steps
with instruction.
5. CROSS COUNTRY
(Brown)
4. THERMAL SOARING
(Blue)
3. RIDGE SOARING
(Green)
2. ALTITUDE GLIDING
(Orange)
1. GROUND SKIMMING
(combined with stage 2)
A PILOT'S ABILITY to fly paragliders can
be broken down to 4 QUALITIES that we can develop:
1. Knowledge
2. Skill
3. Experience
4. Airmanship
SKILL: Since paragliding is a
practical activity, a pilot's ability can best be measured by
his skill, which means his way of performing manoeuvres, links
of manoeuvres and tasks, and how he masters flying conditions
and new situations. He certainly also must show good AIRMANSHIP
but that is not easily measured and difficult to diagram. A
good instructor however is able to spot good airmanship often
before the pilot is even in the air.
KNOWLEDGE and EXPERIENCE
are only "tools" used to improve a pilot's SKILL
and AIRMANSHIP and hence his ABILITY as a pilot.
They are however of good value in the learning process and their
value as such can hardly be overestimated. Left alone by themselves
they are meaningless in measuring the pilot ABILITY.
BASED on the above "facts"
or statements, I have developed a training system, built on
the 5 STAGES of PARAGLIDING as a natural progression
for a pilot. I have also based the system mainly on the development
and measurement of the pilot's SKILL, although the other
3 qualities have found their place.
For instance, AIRMANSHIP is expressed by the
fact that the pilot has either a STUDENT LICENCE, which means
that he lacks the necessary AIRMANSHIP to take care of his own
and othersí safety, or he has a PILOT LICENCE, showing he has
the necessary AIRMANSHIP. In other words, a student pilot is
one that is under a training system, controlled by an instructor,
and all his flying shall be in accordance with the instructor
guidelines. A pilot licence shows that the holder is a pilot
that is mature enough to take care of his own flying, seeking
further instruction when he feels he needs it.
A pilot licence does not mean that the holder
is someone that does not need more instruction because "he
knows it all", but merely that he can take care of himself
at the stage he is at. When he wants to progress to a higher
stage he seeks instruction, before he goes out on his own flying
at that stage.
THE COLOUR CODES (or "Black belt
in Paragliding"): The stages in the system are colour
coded for easy identification. The idea is that the pilot (or
student) will wear visible markings that identify him as a Student
or a Pilot, as well as the stage he is on (signed off by an
instructor). Apart from being a good site control system it
has its values as a training aid. It is motivating and it gives
the students and pilots insight in what they are up to by breaking
down the way to the top into easily identifiable stages or blocks
that seem attainable by most people.
Note: The stages are given colours from yellow
to brown. A "black" grade or Master grade may be considered
as the top level. This grade should express the ultimate in
Airmanship, Skill, Knowledge and Experience.
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PARA PRO, general description
The objective of this program is to aid
and assist the participants to progress safely in, and enjoy,
the sport of paragliding, and become true airmen.
Which means that they must be able to
enjoy the beauty and freedom of the sport, and not risk injury
or restrictions due to their own and othersí lack of will and
ability to take care of their safety, enjoyment and freedom.
The ability of an airman is based on
knowledge, skill, experience, personal qualities and attitudes,
which take time to develop to a standard where one is able to
operate alone within the objective above.
The development of this ability is a
matter of education, which is done most efficiently, enjoyably
and safely through a planned program which motivates the student
and pilots by helping them to reach easily definable and natural
stages or goals, which gradually expands the operational freedom
without jeopardising safety.
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THE PROGRAM
The program consists of 5 natural stages, based
on the development of the sport, and which gives an excellent
progression after the building block principle of learning.
One progresses from the easy to the more difficult, from low
to high, from basic to advanced, from simple to complicated,
being careful not to leave any gaps on the way.
The program also divides the participants into
students and pilots which indicated whether they are able to
operate alone or not.
THE 5 STAGES
1,2. Altitude gliding Orange
Student
3. Ridge Soaring Green Pilot
4. Thermal Soaring Blue Pilot
5. Cross Country Brown Pilot
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PARTICIPANTS:
Students:
A student pilot is as the name suggests
under training to become a pilot. He is considered to have limited
ability to take care of his own and other people's safety.
This means that he has not developed
enough ability to evaluate all elements involved with regard
to safety and based on this, make safe and sound decisions and
act accordingly, without the supervision of an instructor.
Pilots:
A pilot should be able to take care of
his own and other people's safety within applicable rules, regulations
and code of good practice, while operating alone requires higher
stages than they are rated for.
This means that he must be able to evaluate
all the elements involved with regard to safety, and based on
this make safe and sound decisions and act accordingly, on his
own, or to obtain further instruction, information and assistance
at his own discretion.
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Recommended training and safety limitations
Students should always fly under the
supervision of an instructor. Before all the rating requirements
are met they should always fly under the direct supervision
of an instructor.
Students should only fly paragliders
and harnesses suitable for students and which on they have been
checked out on by the instructor. They should only do tuning
and repairs when approved by the instructor.
Students should only fly demonstration
or competition flying at the stages they are rated for and always
under the direct supervision of an instructor.
Pilots are expected to be familiar with
and to follow all applicable national aeronautical regulations
and local flying site rules.
Pilots should not participate in demonstration,
competition or other organised flying which requires higher
standards than they are rated for.
Minimum age: To fly paraglider: the minimum
recommended age is 16 years old, with the written permission
of parent or guardian when below 18 years.
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PARA PRO, DESCRIPTION OF STAGE ELEMENTS:
Knowledge
Students stage 1, 2 and 3 should be given
the necessary lectures, briefings, oral discussions and written
tests to ensure that the required knowledge needed to meet the
objectives of the applicable stage, is acquired. The listed
requirements are a guide to meet those objectives. They should
not restrict anybody from giving additional instruction if found
necessary. The methods of instruction may vary and are left
to the discretion of the organiser/instructor.
Stage 3. Before a student is signed off
to become a pilot, he should pass a written test on air law,
applicable rules and regulations and code of good practice,
to ensure that he has all the necessary knowledge to operate
alone, safely and correctly at sites and in the air.
Pilots stage 4 and 5, may at their own
discretion acquire the required knowledge, either through attendance
of lectures, briefings or through oral discussions and group
or personal study.
Before a student or a pilot is signed
off at an applicable stage, the instructor or observer must
be convinced that he meets the required standard of knowledge.
Practical skills
Students stage 1,2 & 3, should be
given the necessary instruction in each of the practical skills.
Before a skill is actually performed, the student should be
given a theoretical briefing in the basic theory, the purpose,
normal procedures, mistakes, faults and dangers and their corrections,
as well as the acceptable safe criteria of performance.
Each skill should be practised until the instructor
is convinced that it is mastered within correct and safe procedures
and limitations for the applicable stage. The skills may be
signed off progressively as the above criteria is met. A special
flight test is hence not necessary.
Pilots stage 4 & 5, may at their
own discretion, within acceptable safe methods, acquire the
necessary instruction for each practical skill. Before the skills
are signed off, they should be demonstrated to an instructor
or observer, who should be convinced that they are mastered
within safe procedures and limitations.
Experience
Experience is not, by itself, a measurement
of pilot ability. It shall, however, ensure that the knowledge,
skills and airmanship have been practised a minimum number of
times in various situations. Exercise, drill and practice are
important in the learning process to meet the objective of all
true learning which is: to effect behavioural changes.
The experience requirements should be
documented by a logbook or reliable witnesses. The instructor
or observer should be convinced that the minimum requirements
are met or he/she must require further proof.
Airmanship
The instructor or observer should be convinced
that the student or pilot has the ability to take care of his
own and othersí safety at the applicable stage, within applicable
rules, regulations, recommended safety limitations and code
of good practice.
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PARA PRO, STAGE 2,
LOW FLIGHTS & ALTITUDE
GLIDING (ORANGE)
Low flights is gliding near the ground over smooth terrain,
normally not above 5 meters.
Altitude gliding is gliding with enough
height and distance from the terrain to be able to manoeuvre
relatively freely.
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INSTRUCTIONAL AND SAFETY RECOMMENDATIONS:
The objectives of this stage are to introduce
the student to paragliding by a progression through first low
flights (the first stage) and then altitude gliding (the second
stage) and make him able to practice and enjoy this within safe
limitations, as well as to prepare him for the next stage.
This stage is probably the most important
in the whole progression of the student, since it is here the
basis for good (or bad) habits is founded. One shall in safe
closeness to the ground, fly easy equipment, in easy hills and
conditions, to gain confidence in flying, the equipment and
also oneself and practice and learn the basic skills.
The student shall then gradually become accustomed
to flying well clear off the ground, and lose possible height
anxiety (allow for individual progression). One must now plan
and prepare for each flight and one finds that one is actually
safer with altitude that gives time and space to manoeuvre and
correct for possible mistakes.
One learns and practices the basic manoeuvres,
such as speed control including slow flying, co-ordinated turns,
and combinations of those, correction for wind drift and precision
approaches and landings. The latter proves that one has mastered
the other manoeuvres with sufficient planning and precision.
The key word is planning that starts even before takeoff and
continues all the time. One must be ahead of the events, observe,
evaluate, decide and act accordingly. This "process of
flying" is vital in all aviation, also on the higher stages.
It is warned against attempts to take
off in cross-, down-, gusty or strong winds and to fly in unstable
or turbulent conditions or in lift.
One should at the beginner's hill only practice
gentle turns with only small diversions form the flight path.
In the intermediate hill, poor planning, preparations
and takeoff techniques may have the most serious consequences.
All manoeuvres should be done into the wind to avoid drifting
into the hill or too far off and hence not be able to reach
the landing area. Advanced manoeuvres, like 360° turns, pylon
flying and slow flying should be performed with extra caution
and sufficient height and distance to the terrain to allow for
corrections or recovery if control is lost. Turns, downwind
flying and airspeed below speed for best glide angle close to
the ground should be avoided. Approach should be planned in
good time, and started with good height.
After all rating requirements have been met:
The student should, when flying without the direct supervision
of an instructor only fly in beginner or intermediate hills
with light to medium (0-3 m/s, 0-15 km/h, 0-10 mph), smooth
winds. Takeoffs should only be done in approximately headwind.
Lift or turbulence should be avoided, or if this is not possible,
flown straight through (away from the hill) to calmer conditions
in order to land in the ordinary landing area. One should also
avoid flying alone.
A beginner hill is a hill with smooth
terrain, preferable snow, sand, grass or gravel, with a profile
that allow for low flights with the type of glider in use. The
takeoff and landing areas and the area between should be free
of obstacles and other hazards with a good margin to either
side. It should be possible to do the whole flight in close
to a straight line.
An intermediate is a hill where takeoff,
landing area and the flight path between them is considered
to be easy and with good margins to any obstacle or other safety
hazards. The takeoff area should be smooth with a profile that
allows for acceleration to flying speed before getting airborne
(no cliff launch). The landing area should be large and easy
to reach by normal manoeuvring with a good margin of height.
There should be established two-way communication between takeoff
and landing if the landing area cannot be seen from takeoff.
Before progressing to the next stage
it is of vital importance that the student knows the theory
as well as mastering all practical skills, especially airspeed
control in the lower speed range and that he is able to recognise
and correct for nearness to stalls. This applies to both straight
flight and turns.
To gain a minimum of experience, the student
is recommended to practice a minimum of 4 flying days and 20
flights, after all rating requirements are met.
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PARA PRO Stage 2, KNOWLEDGE Requirements:
Aerodynamics:
1. Lift: Difference in pressure created
by: profile, airspeed and angle of attack. Low pressure over
the wing, high pressure under the wing. Definition of: relative
wind, even (laminar) airflow.
2. Lift factors: airfoils (wing profile),
area, aspect ratio, air density, airspeed, angle of attack.
Internal pressure in the wing, how influenced by use of brakes.
3. Resistance/Drag: Parasitic, induced,
relation to airspeed and angle of attack. More drag when paraglider
is behind the pilot on the ground than when overhead.
4. The nature of flying: One is always
dependent on continuous forward airspeed in order to keep
flying, one can not stop or reverse.
5. Load: Weight, G-force. Forces in
turns, lift gradients gusts and turbulence. Opening shocks.
6. Driving forces:
a. On the ground: By running.
b. In the air: The principle of
the inclined plane: In flying without engine one is always
going down (related to the air around you) because gravity
is the driving force.
7. Airspeed versus Groundspeed. Wind
effects: Why to take off and land into the wind. Head-
or tail-wind, wind drift and crabbing, drift and corrections
in turns.
8. Stalls: Description, dangers,
recognition, avoidance and recovery. In turns, accelerated,
secondary, in wind and lift gradients, downwind, in gusts
and turbulence.
9. Frontal collapses: Both asymmetrical
(one wingtip) and symmetrical (both wingtips, or entire
leading edge). Description, dangers, recognition, avoidance
and recovery. In turns, gusts and turbulence.
10. Spins, Spirals, Skids and Slips.
Negative spins. Description, recognition, avoidance and
recovery.
11. Wing tip vortices: Turbulence
behind all aircraft, how to avoid collapses therefrom. Ground
effect.
12. Control movements and principles:
Airspeed control and turning. Use of brakes versus weight-shift.
13. Airspeeds and speed polars: Minimum
sink and best glide angle, relation between airspeeds in
head- and tail-wind and varied wing loading.
Micro-meteorology (site conditions) and meteorology:
1. Wind, description and creation:
Airflow from high to low pressure. Created by uneven heating
of the surface. (Samples: Water flow. The sea breeze).
2. Wind measurement, wind meters, natural
indicators and signs.
a. Velocity: Knots, MPH or m/s.
b. Directions: Compass and quadrant
(Head or up, tail or down, crosswind).
3. The wind force: Increases proportionally
with the square of the wind velocity increase. Effects,
dangers.
4. Wind gradient: Effect, dangers,
corrections.
5. Uneven wind/gusts, turbulence and
lift: Causes, signs, dangers.
a. Mechanical turbulence: Behind
or lee of obstructions, trees, buildings, hills.
b. Thermal turbulence: Instability,
uneven heating, dangers, recognition.
c. Wind shifts: Gusts and dangers.
d. Wind shears: Descriptions, dangers.
6. Local conditions: Terrain effects,
valleys, around obstructions and corners.
7. Weather: Creation, heat and pressure
differences, stability/ instability, circulation, wind systems.
8. Sea breeze: Creation, effects.
9. Waves: Rotors. Behind mountains,
signs and dangers.
10. Ridge effects: Descriptions,
kinds, gradients, dangers.
11. Thermals: Description, instability,
turbulence, signs.
12. Clouds: Cumulus, cumulonimbus,
rotor clouds, dangers.
13. Airmasses and Fronts: Cold fronts,
warm fronts, signs and conditions.
14. Weather reports and evaluation:
a. Weather reports: Signs, interpretation.
b. Reading wind: direction and
force, at takeoff and landing, along the flight path,
indicators.
c. Recognition of safe and dangerous
conditions.
Paragliders and equipment:
1. Construction and Terminology: Materials
and parts.
2. Airworthiness standards and requirements:
Design and certification, purpose and need. Design maximum
loads, manoeuvring limitations, stability, stall characteristics,
manoeuvrability, speed range, pilot weight and rating.
3. Handling: Control response. Roll,
pitch and yaw coupling. Stability, slow flight and stalls,
B-lining, takeoff and landing characteristics. Effect of accelerators
or speed systems.
4. Maintenance: Daily and periodical
inspection and care, qualified tuning and repairs.
5. Selection of gliders: Rating and
experience, type of flying, performance, handling and weight
range. Use and ambitions. Appropriate model rating for students:
Standard rating (not Performance or Competition rating).
6. Selection of harnesses: Types of
harnesses, weight-shift or classic; use of cross-bracing.
Rating and experience.
7. Performance: Minimum sink, maximum
glide, maximum speed, penetration, turning capacity.
8. Safety equipment: Helmet, boots,
gloves, clothing. Dorsal protection and hip protection. Airbags.
Airmen
1. Physical factors: Fitness, strength,
exhaustion. Drugs and alcohol. Vertigo, hyperventilation.
2. Psychological factors: Anxiety and
fear of height. Recognition of own ability and limitations
versus natural and equipment limitations. Confidence versus
overconfidence (The Icarus syndrome). Group and personal pressures
and approval, saying no, the walk down. Self discipline.
3. The learning process and environment:
The training system, objectives, description, safety, motivation,
individual progress.
4. Conduct/ Airmanship:
a. The nature of flying: One is
always dependent on continuous forward airspeed in order
to keep flying, one can not stop or reverse.
b. The process of flying: Insight,
continuous evaluations, decisions, actions. With regard
to the nature of flying, being ahead.
c. The commando principle: The
necessity of completing every started flight. The danger
of panic.
Rules and regulations (as applicable):
1. Government or other official authorities.
a. Airspace and Air traffic: Controlled
and uncontrolled airspace and airports, VFR/IFR traffic
and rules, right of way rules.
b. Other rules.
2. National Paragliding Association.
3. School and training.
4. Local and site(s).
5. Code of good practice.
6. Right of way rules.
Practical flying and safety:
1. Instructional and safety recommendations.
2. Flight planning: The process of
flying: Information/observation, evaluation, decisions and
execution. Making a flight plan.
3. Preparations: Standard routines
and checks, double checks of critical factors.
4. Flying exercises: The practical
skill requirements: Description, intention, procedures, execution,
errors and dangers.
5. Critical, dangerous and emergency situations:
Their causes, avoidance, recognition, corrections. Applicable
training methods (simulations).
a. Poor preparation: Equipment
failures and malfunctions.
b. Ground handling in gusts and
strong winds: Loss of control. Being dragged, avoidance,
prevention.
c. Stalls: Level flight, in turns,
low, high, in takeoff, in gradient, in gusts, in turbulence,
in (unexpected) lift, downwind, downwind turns in gradient.
d. Poor takeoff techniques: Poor
control of glider, poor airspeed and directional control.
Over-control, turn back to hill. Getting into harness,
release of brakes to accomplish same.
e. Wind conditions: Wind strength,
crosswind, gusts and turbulence, unexpected lift, drift
into hill, wind gradient.
f. Crashing/ Emergency landings:
Avoidance, preparations.
g. Takeoffs above 1500m: Air density
decreases. True airspeed increases.
h. Critical manoeuvres: Flying
close to terrain and obstructions, stalls and slow flight,
360o turns, spins, spiral dives, pylon flying. Takeoff
in wind without assistance, particularly near cliffs.
i. Unfamiliarity: With sites, conditions,
glider or harness, manoeuvre or tasks.
j. Physical and Physiological factors:
Stress, pressure, exhaustion, fear, drugs and alcohol.
k. Poor airmanship: Overestimating
own ability and/or underestimating sites, conditions,
equipment or task.
l. Vertigo: Flying with reduced
visibility.
m. Combinations: Of two or more
of the above multiplies the risk of accidents.
n. Emergency manoeuvre: Use of
parachutes, prevention of down-planing of paraglider after
parachute deployment. Landings in water, trees, rough
terrain, obstructed areas, electrical wires.
o. Accidents: Assistance and reports.
First Aid:
In accordance with appropriate authority's recommendations.
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PARA PRO Stage 2, PRACTICAL SKILLS Requirements:
Part 1: Introduction and LOW FLIGHTS:
1. Transport, care and maintenance:
of paraglider and equipment. Accordion vs. rolled fold up.
Proper stowing of lines and risers.
2. Pre and post flight routines:, Laying
out, making a horseshoe, "building a wall", adjustments,
pre-flight checks, line and karabiner control, harness control,
attachment of cross-bracing and speed system. Packing up.
3. Takeoff position and final check:
Position of risers and toggles. Body and arm position. Final
check.: Of karabiners and cross-bracing, conditions, clear
area.
4. Takeoff exercises. The glider to flying
position: Determined, correct running to get the glider
up. Checking the glider visually. Letting go of front risers.
Correcting problems. Continue running, smooth acceleration,
no jumping into harness.
5. Running with glider: Controlling
position of paraglider and angle of attack and roll, on flat
ground and on a slope.
6. Stalling and stopping a run: On
flat ground and on a slope. Correct landing technique. Not
flaring too soon.
7. Flight planning: Evaluating site
and conditions. Decisions, giving a flight plan.
8. Takeoff: Takeoff position. Smooth
acceleration and lift off, with correct airspeed and good
directional control.
9. Speed control: Best glide angle
speed, no tendency of slow flight or stall.
10. Directional control: Maintaining
heading, smooth course corrections, avoidance of oscillations.
11. Shallow turns: Co-ordinated entry
and recovery, small diversions from course.
12. Landings: Directly into wind.
Part 2: ALTITUDE GLIDING:
1. Planning: Insight, evaluation of
site and conditions, decisions, giving a flight plan.
2. Pre-flight routines: Repetition
of Part 1, spreading, adjustment, pre-flight checks.
3. Takeoffs: Start position, final
check, smooth acceleration, lift off at correct speed, good
speed and directional control.
4. Speed control manoeuvres: Best glide
angle and minimum sink speed.
5. Turns: 90o - 180o, gentle to medium
bank, left and right, co-ordinated.
6. Slow flight: Recognition and recovery
(at safe altitudes).
7. Ground reference manoeuvres: Figure
8-turns and rectangular patterns, correcting for wind-drift.
8. Traffic rules: Manoeuvring according
to other traffic.
9. Landing patterns: Following planned
procedure. Approach with downwind, base and final legs. Figure
8-turns. Control of gradient.
10. Turning and landing only by the use of
the rear risers (simulation of brake-line failure).
11. Precision approaches and landings:
Safe and standing inside an area pre-set by the instructor.
Slow flight and mushing is not allowed.
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PARA PRO Stage 2, EXPERIENCE Requirements:
1. A minimum of 6 flying days.
2. A minimum of 30 successful flights, of
which at least 10 are altitude gliding flights.
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PARA PRO Stage 2, AIRMANSHIP Requirements:
The instructor should be convinced that the
student is able to take care of his own and others' safety,
while flying low or altitude gliding within the instructional
and safety recommendations given.
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PARA PRO, STAGE 3,
BASIC SOARING, GREEN.
Basic soaring is soaring in easy ridge
or thermal conditions, without gusts or turbulence, well clear
of the terrain, obstacles and other traffic.
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INSTRUCTIONAL AND SAFETY RECOMMENDATIONS
The objectives of this stage are to introduce
the student to soaring flight and to make him able to practice
and enjoy soaring within safe limitations. He should also be
qualified to become a pilot, with the ability to operate alone
within safe limitations and to take the responsibility for his
further progression.
Soaring has many stages in itself, with
increasing difficulty, from easy conditions and manoeuvres with
a large safety margin, to marginal or extreme conditions with
minimal margins. When a pilot "masters the art", it
seems quite simple and in a sense it is. This, however, should
not mislead anyone into believing that it is easily mastered.
Lack of knowledge, misjudgement, wrong manoeuvring, ignorance
or gambling may easily end up in a serious accident.
One will in this stage get more time
to practice in the air and the flying can get automated. There
is however less room for mistakes and errors. Therefore careful
planned progression is very important. Exercises should in the
beginning be simple and with large margins. Soaring requires
careful preparation, good planning and ability to do precise
and fast manoeuvring. Especially important is good launch technique
and control in the lower part of the speed range. One must be
able to fly co-ordinated turns with a minimum loss of altitude,
often in marginal conditions close to the ridge while calculating
drift and keeping constant lookout for other traffic and manoeuvring
according to traffic rules. One must also be able to recognise
all kinds of collapses and to execute prompt and correct recovery
at the first signs, with a minimum loss of height and control.
To become a pilot: One should now also
be free to develop further, and one has still a lot to learn
in order to be able to use the possibilities there is. One will
be given possibilities that will demand very good "airmanship"
including self discipline and carefulness. It can often be necessary
not to fly or to fly with large margins. The point is that one
must show that one is able to take responsibility and that one
know where ones own as well as others limits are, and when further
instruction is necessary.
An instructor will no longer be responsible.
This puts large demands on oneís personality.
It is warned against too fast a progression,
overconfidence, inattention, ignorance, gambling, misjudgement
and lack of skills. One will operate in stronger winds with
smaller margins than on previous stages. Even before takeoff
accidents can happen. Poor takeoff techniques, lack of control
and correction of glider while running, or takeoff without a
"perfect" glider can have serious consequences. One
should have qualified assistance when launching in strong or
gusty winds. Further one should be very careful with the conditions,
which can change suddenly. Strong wind and turbulence may easily
lead one to the lee side, or to drift in over dangerous/ unknown
terrain. One should also avoid flying alone.
It is also warned against the so called
"intermediate syndrome" or "Icarus syndrome",
meaning that it is easy to believe that one now knows and masters
everything, and that neither oneself or the equipment has limitations.
(It is well known that Icarus was the first who killed himself
because of this attitude.)
The student (before stage 3 is attained)
should only fly:, with instructor present, in easy smooth
conditions with a wide lift band or in smooth thermal conditions.
This will allow him to manoeuvre with a good margin to other
traffic and the terrain. He should be careful not to turn before
he is established in flying position with good control of airspeed
and direction. He should not try to return to a lift band he
has flown out of. Ridge soaring in marginal lift, in strong
wind (above 7 m/s, 25 km/h, 15 mph), in turbulence, cliff launches,
crosswind launches, top landings or landings into the hill (hillside
landings) are also not allowed.
After all rating requirements have been met
one can fly freely within the safety limitations, as long as
a higher stage is not required by other rules or regulation.
One will have the responsibility to seek further instructions
when necessary. It is recommended in the beginning to use the
rules for students (above) as a guidance for safe flying.
Only experienced pilots should fly at
advanced sites close to the ridge, in marginal, strong or turbulent
conditions or in "heavy traffic".
Before progressing to higher stages,
the pilot should have a variety of experience from different
sites and conditions. The process of flying should be automated,
so that reactions are fast and correct in the different situations/exercises
one has to master. It is recommended to fly a minimum of 20
hours and 50 flights.
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PARA PRO Stage 3, KNOWLEDGE Requirements:
Aerodynamics:
1. Repetition of stage 2 theory.
2. Stalls and collapses: In takeoff,
in gusts and turbulence. In lift gradients. Turning in lift
gradients. In wind gradient. Turning in wind gradient (downwind).
Secondary stalls.
3. Speed polars: Performance. Evaluation
of glide angle and minimum sink with corresponding airspeeds:
In head- and tail-wind, in lift and sink. With regards to
wing loading, air density, turns.
4. Wind effects: Wind-drift and crabbing,
drift and corrections in turns. Head- or tail-wind, penetration.
5. Wing tip vortices: Behind other
gliders, aeroplanes, helicopters.
Meteorology:
1. Repetition of stage 2 theory.
2. The wind force: Increases proportionally
with the square of the wind velocity increase. Effects and
dangers. On the ground, at takeoff, in the air, at the landing.
3. Ridge lift:
a. Factors: Shape and gradient
of slope, wind direction and velocity.
b. Components: Horizontal and vertical,
gradients, acceleration, strongest lift, strongest headwind.
c. Dangerous conditions and areas:
Lee-side, turbulence, rotors, strong gradients and winds.
Winds that increase quickly in speed.
d. Safe and good conditions: Up
and in front of the ridge.
4. Waves:
a. Factors: Terrain, wind direction
and velocity.
b. Signs: High winds, lenticular
clouds, rotor clouds.
c. Dangers: Rotors, penetration,
strong lift, high altitudes, hypoxia, cold.
5. Thermals:
a. Factors: Instability, lapse
rates, terrain, sunshine and heating.
b. Signs: Large temperature drop
with altitude, wind shifts, lulls and gusts, cumulus clouds.
c. Dangers: Gusts and turbulence,
strong lift gradients, pitch ups and downs.
d. Safe and good conditions: Large
thermals, smooth and moderate gradient, light to medium
winds.
6. Frontal lift: Cold front description.
a. Factors: Airmasses, from high
to low pressures, instability.
b. Signs: Cumulus clouds, moving
clouds, squall lines, wind-shift, temperature rise/fall.
c. Dangers: High winds, wind shifts
and gusts, strong lift, turbulence.
7. Clouds: Cumulus, cumulonimbus,
cap clouds, rotor clouds, stratus clouds, lenticular clouds.
8. Weather reports: Actuals (METAR),
forecasts (TAF), maps. Where to obtain, interpretations.
9. Weather signs: Reading the weather
on the ground and in the air:
a. Measuring: Of the wind, pressure
and stability.
b. Clouds: Associated weather and
conditions.
c. Wind: Reading the wind, wind
indicators.
Paragliders and equipment:
1. Repetition of stage 2 theory.
2. Design Factors: Airworthiness, performance,
handling.
3. Maintenance: Daily and periodical
inspections and care, repairs.
4. Tuning: For maximum performance
in the prevailing conditions.
5. Instruments: Variometers, altimeters,
airspeed indicators.
6. Clothes and equipment: For endurance,
high altitude and cold.
7. Selection of glider: Appropriate
model rating for pilots at this level: Standard rating (not
Performance or Competition rating).
Airmen:
1. Repetition of stage 2 theory.
2. Pilot in command: Airmanship, traits,
abilities, responsibilities, command and control. Mastering
the nature and process of flying.
3. Physical factors: Vertigo, hypoxia,
cold, exhaustion.
Rules and regulations:
1. Repetition of stage 2 theory.
2. The airspace and other traffic in the
air:
a. Controlled airspace and airports:
Control zones, terminal areas, airways, ATC, VFR/IFR traffic
patterns, rules of operation, VFR rules for minimum visibility
and distances from clouds.
b. Uncontrolled airspace and airports:
Information zones and services, VFR/IFR traffic patterns,
rules of operation, VFR rules for minimum visibility and
distances from clouds.
c. Other airspace: Restricted,
dangerous and prohibited areas.
3. Information sources: ICAO maps,
publications, manuals, NOTAMs. Where to obtain. Air Traffic
Control, information service, local airports and clubs,
schools.
4. Right of way rules for paragliders
and hang gliders: General, ridge soaring, thermal soaring.
5. Other rules and regulations, as
applicable: Government, National Paragliding Association.
6. Code of good practice.
Practical flying and safety:
1. Repetition of stage 2 theory.
2. Instructional and safety recommendations.
3. Preparations: Standard routines
and checks, double checks of critical factors.
4. Flying exercises: The Practical
skill requirements: Description, intention, procedures, execution,
errors and dangers.
5. Critical, dangerous and emergency situations:
Their causes, avoidance, recognition, corrections. Applicable
training methods (simulations).
a. Ground handling in gusts and high
winds. Practice of reverse inflation, use of crossed-hands
control or not. The turn from reverse to forward position,
when and how. Deflation of glider when necessary, avoidance
of being dragged.
b. Poor takeoff techniques: Wrong
use of or wrong commands to assistants. Poor control off
the glider. Poor airspeed and directional control, collapses,
loss of control, turning back to ridge. Getting into harness.
c. Stalls: In gusts, turbulence,
in lift gradient, close to the terrain, in turn.
d. Conditions: Marginal lift, strong
winds, gusts, turbulence, rotors.
e. Unusual attitudes: Turbulence,
aerobatics, flying close to clouds.
f. Critical manoeuvres: 360° turns,
returning to lift band, flying close to the terrain, top
landings, hillside landings, stalling in turns. Stopping
a negative spin. Recovery from major collapses (symmetrical
or asymmetrical), B-line stalls. Stopping a spiral dive.
g. Unfamiliarity: With sites, conditions,
glider or harness, manoeuvres or tasks.
h. Physical and Physiological factors:
Stress, pressure, exhaustion, fear, drugs and alcohol.
i. Poor airmanship: Overestimating
own ability, and/or underestimating sites and conditions.
j. Vertigo: Flying with reduced
visibility.
k. Combinations: Of two or more
of the above multiplies the risk of accidents.
l. Emergency manoeuvres: Use of
parachutes. Landings in water, trees, rough terrain, obstructed
areas, electrical wires.
m. Accidents: Assistance and reports.
First Aid:
Repetition of stage 2 theory.
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PARA PRO Stage 3, PRACTICAL SKILLS Requirements:
1. Review: Stage 2 manoeuvres mastered.
2. Planning: The process of flying,
giving a flight plan.
3. Preparations: Spreading out, attachment
of harness, adjustments, pre-flight checks.
4. Ground handling: Control, assistance,
correct procedures.
5. Takeoffs in wind: With assistance,
procedures, instructions, Start position. Final checks. Speed
and direction. Flying position.
6. Minimum sink manoeuvres: Speed control,
co-ordinated turns left and right, minimum loss of height,
without any sign of stall.
7. Wind corrections exercises/ Manoeuvring
in lift bands: Figure 8 manoeuvring, corrections for wind
drift, turns and reversing direction. Manoeuvring according
to terrain and other traffic, keeping a good lookout.
8. 360 degree turns: Ordinary speed
and on minimum sink, right and left, shallow to medium bank,
without any sign of stalls. (Safe height and distance to terrain.)
9. Stalling: From minimum sink speed
and flight straight ahead. (Safe altitude and distance.) To
be attempted for only with instructor, with radio communications,
with reserve parachute present, and over water. B-line stalls:
force required to enter, avoidance of deep stall during recovery
by quick let-up of risers.
10. Frontal collapses: 20-30 % on one
side and on both sides. (Safe altitude and distance.) Progression
from pulling on 1 A-line to 2, 3, 4. Use of counter-steering
with weight shift. Pumping out folds.
11. Soaring: Entering, turning and
manoeuvring in lift, corrections and gradient, without any
signs of stalls.
12. Precision approaches and landings:
Safe and inside an area decided by the instructor.
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PARA PRO Stage 3, EXPERIENCE Requirements:
1. A minimum of 60 successful flights and
a total of 10 flying hours.
2. Flights from 5 different sites, of which
3 are inland.
3. Minimum 3 flights and a total of 2 hours
of flying in lift.
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PARA PRO Stage 3, AIRMANSHIP Requirements:
The instructor should be convinced that the
student is able to take care of his own and othersí safety within
applicable rules and regulations, recommendations and code of
good practice, while operating alone.
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PARA PRO, STAGE 4,
ADVANCED SOARING, BLUE.
Advanced soaring is flying in demanding
lift, as marginal, strong and/or turbulent hang, thermal or
wave conditions.
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INSTRUCTIONAL AND SAFETY RECOMMENDATIONS:
The objective of this stage is to make
sure the pilot safely can fly advanced soaring, also under pressure
as in displays, demonstrations and competitions.
This stage has turbulence and small margins
as key words. One must be prepared to be forced to operate close
to the safe operating limitations for the both the equipment
and oneself. Even while one certainly should give both equipment
and oneself good safety margins, one must be prepared for the
possibility that those margins may be passed. A thorough knowledge
of emergency procedures, such as recovery from asymmetric and
symmetric collapses, stalls, spins, spirals, and surges, as
well as use of parachute, is very important. One must have a
thorough knowledge of performance curves and correct flying
speeds (speed polars), use of accelerator (speed system), design
limitations and load factors.
Advanced soaring requires the ability
of fast and accurate evaluations of conditions and situations
combined with fast and precise manoeuvring. There will be situations
with little time for balanced decisions and wrong reactions.
One must be prepared by careful planning as well as one always
must be ahead of the situation, so that in critical situations
one gives the right reaction without wasting time. One must
have highly developed skills and a thorough knowledge in order
to gain maximum performance. One must, often close to the terrain
and in turbulent conditions, master all types of turns combined
with low speeds, and also keep a close watch of terrain and
other traffic.
It is warned against extreme conditions,
because of the enormous forces that may be present. Regardless
of pilot skill and experience one may easily lose control. Structural
(equipment) failures can also happen. One must never overestimate
oneself or the equipment. If one meets strong turbulence, one
must not panic and try to avoid it by sharp turns or high speeds,
since this increases the possibilities for loss of control (or
major collapses). Correct manoeuvring in strong turbulence is
moderate speeds and flight straight ahead or shallow banks if
necessary.
Other dangers are stalling or frontal collapse,
and loss of control close to the terrain. If this happens, the
correct reactions are vital. That is, in case of a stall first
reduce the angle of attack by raising oneís arms, control the
ensuing surge of the canopy, then wait for speed to manoeuvre
and then avoid collision. In case of a frontal collapse, this
is to increase angle of attack and if necessary counter any
tendency to turns and then avoid collision. One should also
avoid flying alone.
Students are under no circumstance allowed
to fly advanced soaring.
Pilots must have a licence for this stage
in order to fly advanced soaring in displays, demonstrations
or competitions or else where this stage is required.
Before progressing to the next stage
one must be able to, with a great deal of accuracy, evaluate
conditions to be acceptable in relation to safety. One should
also show that one is able to find and use all kinds of lift.
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PARA PRO Stage 4, KNOWLEDGE Requirements:
Repetition from stage 3, especially:
Aerodynamics:
1. G-loads:
a. versus manoeuvring and speed in turbulence,
turns and pulling out of spiral dives.
b. Correct manoeuvring speeds in turbulence.
Stability. Speed polars.
Meteorology:
1. Thermals:
a. When, how and where. Stability versus
instability in the air. Lapse rate.
b. Best thermal areas. Time of day and
of year.
c. Types of thermals, dangerous thermal
conditions, dry thermals.
d. Signs: Clouds, cumulus, cumulonimbus.
Squall lines.
2. Wave conditions: waves, turbulence,
high altitudes.
3. Dangerous conditions: Strong wind.
Clouds, cumulonimbus, severe turbulence.
Glider and equipment:
1. Structural limitations: loads, speeds,
attitudes, aerobatics. Structural failures.
2. Stability: profile, wing torsion,
pendulum stability, recovery after stalls or major collapses.
3. Selection of glider: Appropriate
model rating for advanced soaring pilots: Standard rating,
or Performance rating (but not Competition rating).
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PARA PRO Stage 4, PRACTICAL SKILL Requirements:
1. Stage 3 manoeuvres, mastered, reviewed
if necessary.
2. Planning: The process of flying,
giving a flight plan.
3. 360o turns, shallow to medium bank,
left and right.
4. 360o turns, steep, left and right.
5. 360o turns, at minimum sink (flat),
left and right.
6. Ridge soaring: Launching and soaring.
7. Thermal soaring: Launching, locating,
entering and climbing.
8. Marginal lift: Launching and soaring.
9. Gusts and turbulence: Launching
and soaring.
10. Manoeuvring according to the traffic
rules.
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PARA PRO Stage 4, EXPERIENCE Requirements:
1. Same as for stage 3, easy soaring, plus:
2. A total of minimum 20 flying hours.
3. A total of minimum 5 hours of thermal soaring.
4. A total of minimum 5 hours of ridge soaring.
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PARA PRO Stage 4, AIRMANSHIP Requirements:
The pilot should be considered to be able to
take care of his/her own and othersí safety while flying at
this stage, also during displays, demonstrations and competitions
and else where this stage in required.
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PARA PRO, STAGE 5,
CROSS COUNTRY (BROWN)
Cross Country flying is to use rising
air currents (soaring) to fly away from (and maybe return to)
the local flying site.
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INSTRUCTIONAL AND SAFETY RECOMMENDATIONS:
The objective of this stage is to enable
the pilot to fly cross country safely, also under pressure as
in demonstrations, displays and competitions.
This stage has nearly unlimited possibilities,
from short and easy flights, to really demanding long distance
flights, where if the conditions permit, the pilot's ability,
as well as his/her determination, will set the limits. It is
here that the pilot's ability, that is his knowledge, skill,
experience and airmanship, is put to the ultimate test.
One must be able to plan, administer and perform
each flight within safe limitations, while one must stress oneself
and the equipment to the same limitations to be able to go really
far. One must have a thorough knowledge of aerodynamics and
meteorology as well as air traffic rules and the airspace. In
accordance with the planned flight, and existing and possible
conditions, one must choose correct equipment like clothes,
aids and emergency equipment, as well as organising necessary
transport and pick up, radio communications and procedures for
use in an emergency situation such as landing and getting injured
in deserted and difficult terrain.
Cross country flying requires the ability
to find all types of lift, as well as correct manoeuvring in
lift and sink areas. One must be able to judge the terrain and
conditions so as not to land where it is prohibited, or where
one may add injuries to oneself or others, or in areas that
are remote. One must be able to very quickly pick out the best
landing fields if one has to go down, and if necessary set up
a precision approach to a small landing field with a short field
landing over possible barriers. This is because any type of
injuries may have the most serious consequences.
It is warned against cross country flying
into remote and deserted areas, over areas with no possibilities
for emergency landings and over water. One must always make
sure that someone knows where one intends to fly, and that a
search is activated if found necessary. If there is any possibility
for a landing in remote and deserted areas one should bring
an emergency pack according to the conditions. One should also
avoid flying alone.
Students are under no circumstance allowed
to fly cross country.
Pilots must have a licence for this stage
in order to fly cross country in displays, demonstrations or
competitions or else where this stage is required.
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PARA PRO Stage 5, KNOWLEDGE Requirements.
Navigation:
1. Planning: Collecting information
on weather, terrain, sites, airspace, air traffic and hazards.
Use of map and other publications, air traffic and weather
service.
2. Weather service: Where and how to
get weather information.
3. Interpreting weather reports: Present
(METAR), warnings (TAF), area (IGA), maps.
4. Interpreting weather: Signs, recognition
of acceptable and dangerous conditions.
5. Airspace and air traffic:
a. Controlled airspace: Air corridors,
terminal areas, control zones and airports.
b. Uncontrolled airspace: AFIs
and other airfields. Danger, restricted, prohibited and
alert areas.
c. Military traffic: Training areas,
photographing from the air.
d. Governmental publications: AIC,
AIP, Notam, ICAO maps.
6. Use of maps:
a. Planning of flights: Dangerous/
deserted areas, alternative routs, landing areas, communication
and retrieval.
7. Equipment: For altitude and low
temperatures, emergency and first aid equipment, survival
equipment, warning and communication equipment.
8. Selection of glider model: Appropriate
model rating for cross-country pilots: Standard rating or
Performance rating. For advanced cross-country pilots willing
to possibly compromise handling or safety standards for
additional performance: Competition rating.
9. Standard procedures: Signals,
retrieval.
10. Emergency procedures: Warning,
search after missing pilots.
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PARA PRO Stage 5, PRACTICAL SKILLS Requirements:
1. Review: Manoeuvres from previous
stages mastered.
2. Planning: Evaluations and decisions,
giving a flight plan.
3. Soaring: Search for and use of all
kinds of lift. Flying in lift and sink, head- and tail-wind
with correct speed.
4. Cliff-launch in light to moderate wind.
To be avoided due to risk of collapses.
5. Cliff-launch in strong wind: Not
to be attempted in a paraglider, only in a hang glider, and
then only with assistance.
6. Crosswind-launch: Wind maximum 45
degrees on launch direction. Crosswind-component less than
2 m/s, 7 km/h, 5 mph.
7. Outlandings: Precision approach
to unknown landing area: Selection of landing field, control
of speed and glide angle.
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PARA PRO Stage 5, EXPERIENCE Requirements:
Same as for stage 4, plus.
1. A total of 100 flying hours.
2. A total of 5 cross country flights
in various lift (ridge soaring and flying along the same ridge,
only, is not approved).
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PARA PRO Stage 5, AIRMANSHIP Requirements:
The pilot should be able to take care of his
own and othersí safety during cross country flying, also during
displays, demonstrations and competitions and elsewhere this
stage in required.
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APPENDIX
Suggested visual markings for the PARA
PRO system:
The students/pilots should have visual markings
that shows the stage they are at. The following are suggested:
A HELMET BADGE, with colour trim,
matching the colour of the stage. The badges currently used
in Norway are shown for each stage [not in this version of the
document]. [Top]
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